Inflammation of the uvula is known as uvulitis. Your uvula will appear red, puffy, and larger than normal. Other symptoms of uvulitis may include: itching burning a sore throat spots on your throat snoring difficulty swallowing trouble breathing If you have a swollen uvula along with a fever or abdominal pain, consult with your doctor right away. In rare cases, the uvula can swell enough to block your airway. Swelling of the throat is a life-threatening event. If this happens, seek immediate medical attention. What causes a swollen uvula? Causes Inflammation is your body’s response when it’s under attack. Triggers for inflammation include: environmental and lifestyle factors an infection trauma genetics Environmental and Lifestyle Factors The most common food allergies are peanuts tree nuts milk eggs wheat soy fish, including shellfish You could be having an allergic reaction to something you touched, swallowed, or breathed in. Some common allergens include: food irritants , such as dust, animal dander, or pollen medication exposure to chemicals or other toxic substances, including tobacco Infection You can get viral infections or bacterial infections. Examples of viral infections include: the common cold the flu mononucleosis chickenpox measles croup The most common bacterial infection is strep throat, which occurs due to Streptococcus pyogenes, which is a type of group A Streptococcus. If you have infected tonsils, or tonsillitis, severe inflammation can cause them to push against and irritate your uvula. Trauma Trauma to the uvula can happen if you need an intubation, such as during surgery. Your uvula can also be injured during a tonsillectomy. This is a procedure to remove your tonsils, which are located on both sides of your uvula. Your throat and uvula can also become irritated if you have acid reflux disease or if you vomit frequently. Genetics A condition called hereditary angioedema (HAE) can cause swelling of the uvula and throat, as well as swelling of the face, hands, and feet. Other symptoms include nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. It’s an uncommon genetic mutation that occurs in 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 50,000 people. It’s rare, but there are case reports of individuals who have an elongated uvula, which can also interfere with breathing. What are the risk factors for a swollen uvula? Risk Factors Anyone can get uvulitis, but adults get it less often than children do. You’re at increased risk if you: have allergies use tobacco products are exposed to chemicals and other irritants in the environment have a weakened immune system, making you more susceptible to infections How is a swollen uvula diagnosed? Diagnosis If you have fever or swelling of your throat, see your doctor. Be prepared to give a complete medical history. Tell your doctor: about all the over-the-counter and prescription medications you take if you’re a smoker or you chew tobacco if you’ve recently tried new foods if you’ve been exposed to chemicals or unusual substances about your other symptoms, such as abdominal pain, fever, or dehydration Your doctor may be able to make a diagnosis through a physical exam. It’s likely you’ll also need a throat swab to evaluate for strep or to obtain secretions for culture to determine if you have another bacterial or fungal infection. This test is known as the rapid strep test. You may also need a nasal swab to test for influenza. Blood testing can help identify or rule out some other infectious agents. If those tests are inconclusive, you may need to see an allergist. Blood and skin tests can help identify foods or other substances that cause a reaction. Learn more: Allergy testing » If necessary, imaging tests can provide a more detailed view of your throat and the surrounding area. What’s the treatment for a swollen uvula? Treatment When you have something like the common cold, swelling usually clears up on its own without treatment. Otherwise, treatment will depend on how severe your symptoms are, as well as what’s causing the inflammation. Infection Viral infections tend to clear up without treatment. The only upper respiratory infection for which an antiviral medication is available is influenza. Antibiotics can treat bacterial infections. Even after symptoms clear up, take all the medication as prescribed. If your condition may be contagious, stay home until your doctor tells you that you’re no longer at risk of spreading it to others. Allergy If you test positive for an allergy, try to avoid the allergen in the future. Doctors usually treat allergies with antihistamines or steroids. Anaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction. Doctors use epinephrine to treat this reaction. Hereditary angioedema Your doctor may treat HAE with any of the following: anabolic steroids, or androgens antifibrinolytics C1 inhibitors, such as C1 esterase inhibitor (Berinert) or C1 esterase inhibitor (recombinant) (Ruconest) a plasma kallikrein inhibitor, such as ecallantide (Kalbitor) bradykinin receptor antagonist, such as icatibant injection (Firazyr) Tell your doctor if you have new or worsening symptoms, and follow up as necessary. Tips for relief home treatment If you have a swollen uvula or sore throat, it’s your body’s way of telling you that something is wrong. A few home remedies can help keep you strong and soothe your irritated throat. Make sure you’re getting enough fluids. If your throat hurts when you drink, try drinking small amounts throughout the day. Your urine should be light in color. If it’s dark yellow or brown, you’re not drinking enough and may be dehydrated. Additional tips include the following: Cool your throat by sucking on ice chips. Frozen juice bars or ice cream may also do the trick. Gargle with warm salt water to ease your dry, scratchy throat. Aim for a full night’s sleep, and nap during the day if you can. What’s the outlook? Outlook A swollen uvula isn’t a common occurrence. Most of the time it clears up without treatment. If you have an infection, prompt treatment should take care of the problem within a week or two. If you have allergies that lead to swelling of the uvula or throat, do your best to avoid that allergen. You should also be prepared to deal with an attack if you come into contact with the substance again. If you’ve ever had anaphylaxis, ask your doctor if you should carry injectable epinephrine (EpiPen) in case of emergency. People with HAE must learn to recognize triggers and early warning signs of an attack. Talk to your doctor about how to manage HAE. 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Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is defined as a specific form of chronic, progressive fibrosing interstitial pneumonia of unknown cause, primarily occurring in older adults, limited to the lungs, and associated with the histopathologic and/or radiologic pattern of usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP).[1] Signs and symptoms The clinical symptoms of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis are nonspecific and can be shared with many pulmonary and cardiac diseases. Most patients present with a gradual onset (often >6 mo) of exertional dyspnea and/or a nonproductive cough. Approximately 5% of patients have no presenting symptoms when idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is serendipitously diagnosed.

A testicular examination is mainly performed on male patients who present with testicular pathology e.g. pain, swelling, a lump. Although titled testicular examination it involves the examination of the penis, scrotum and testes. As this is an intimate examination it is pertinent to gain a good rapport with your patient, maintain good communication and ensure the patient’s dignity at all times. Remember to offer a chaperone for this skill. For the purposes of your exam, you will most likely be examining a mannequin.

Colonoscopy is a test that allows your doctor to look at the inner lining of your large intestine (rectum and colon). He or she uses a thin, flexible tube called a colonoscope to look at the colon. A colonoscopy helps find ulcers, colon polyps, tumors, and areas of inflammation or bleeding.

Depending on the underlying cause, some types of kidney disease can be treated. Often, though, chronic kidney disease has no cure. Treatment usually consists of measures to help control signs and symptoms, reduce complications, and slow progression of the disease. If your kidneys become severely damaged, you may need treatment for end-stage kidney disease. Treating the cause Your doctor will work to slow or control the cause of your kidney disease. Treatment options vary, depending on the cause. But kidney damage can continue to worsen even when an underlying condition, such as high blood pressure, has been controlled. Treating complications Kidney disease complications can be controlled to make you more comfortable. Treatments may include: High blood pressure medications. People with kidney disease may experience worsening high blood pressure. Your doctor may recommend medications to lower your blood pressure — commonly angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors or angiotensin II receptor blockers — and to preserve kidney function. High blood pressure medications can initially decrease kidney function and change electrolyte levels, so you may need frequent blood tests to monitor your condition. Your doctor will likely also recommend a water pill (diuretic) and a low-salt diet. Medications to lower cholesterol levels. Your doctor may recommend medications called statins to lower your cholesterol. People with chronic kidney disease often experience high levels of bad cholesterol, which can increase the risk of heart disease.

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A video showing drainage of a bartholin cyst

Dilated cardiomyopathy is a disease of the heart muscle, usually starting in your heart's main pumping chamber (left ventricle). The ventricle stretches and thins (dilates) and can't pump blood as well as a healthy heart can. The term "cardiomyopathy" is a general term that refers to the abnormality of the heart muscle itself. Dilated cardiomyopathy might not cause symptoms, but for some people it can be life-threatening. A common cause of heart failure — the heart's inability to supply the body with enough blood — dilated cardiomyopathy can also contribute to irregular heartbeats (arrhythmias), blood clots or sudden death. The condition affects people of all ages, including infants and children, but is most common in men ages 20 to 60.

The operation of vasectomy

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Whereas it is true that no operation has been profoundly affected by the advent of laparoscopy than cholecystectomy has, it is equally true that no procedure has been more instrumental in ushering in the laparoscopic age than laparoscopic cholecystectomy has. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy has rapidly become the procedure of choice for routine gallbladder removal and is currently the most commonly performed major abdominal procedure in Western countries.[1] A National Institutes of Health consensus statement in 1992 stated that laparoscopic cholecystectomy provides a safe and effective treatment for most patients with symptomatic gallstones and has become the treatment of choice for many patients.[2] This procedure has more or less ended attempts at noninvasive management of gallstones. The initial driving force behind the rapid development of laparoscopic cholecystectomy was patient demand. Prospective randomized trials were late and largely irrelevant because advantages were clear. Hence, laparoscopic cholecystectomy was introduced and gained acceptance not through organized and carefully conceived clinical trials but through acclamation. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy decreases postoperative pain, decreases the need for postoperative analgesia, shortens the hospital stay from 1 week to less than 24 hours, and returns the patient to full activity within 1 week (compared with 1 month after open cholecystectomy).[3, 4] Laparoscopic cholecystectomy also provides improved cosmesis and improved patient satisfaction as compared with open cholecystectomy. Although direct operating room and recovery room costs are higher for laparoscopic cholecystectomy, the shortened length of hospital stay leads to a net savings. More rapid return to normal activity may lead to indirect cost savings.[5] Not all such studies have demonstrated a cost savings, however. In fact, with the higher rate of cholecystectomy in the laparoscopic era, the costs in the United States of treating gallstone disease may actually have increased. Trials have shown that laparoscopic cholecystectomy patients in outpatient settings and those in inpatient settings recover equally well, indicating that a greater proportion of patients should be offered the outpatient modality

Epley maneuver: Step 1 You will sit on the doctor's exam table with your legs extended in front of you. The doctor will turn your head so that it is halfway between looking straight ahead and looking directly to the side that causes the worst vertigo. Without changing your head position, the doctor will guide you back quickly so that your shoulders are on the table but your head is hanging over the edge of the table. In this position, the side of your head that is causing the worst vertigo is facing the floor. The doctor will hold you in this position for 30 seconds or until your vertigo stops. Epley maneuver: Step 2 Then, without lifting up your head, the doctor will turn your head to look at the same angle to the opposite side, so that the other side of your head is now facing the floor. The doctor will hold you in this position for 30 seconds or until your vertigo stops. Epley maneuver: Step 3 The doctor will help you roll in the same direction you are facing so that you are now lying on your side. (For example, if you are looking to your right, you will roll onto your right side.) The side that causes the worst vertigo should be facing up. The doctor will hold you in this position for another 30 seconds or until your vertigo stops. Epley maneuver: Step 4 The doctor will then help you to sit back up with your legs hanging off the table on the same side that you were facing. This maneuver is done with the assistance of a doctor or physical therapist. A single 10- to 15-minute session usually is all that is needed. When your head is firmly moved into different positions, the crystal debris (canaliths) causing vertigo will move freely and no longer cause symptoms.

The majority of fetuses are in a breech presentation early in pregnancy. By week 38th week of gestation, however, the fetus normally turns to a cephalic presentation. Although the fetal head is the widest single diameter, the fetus’s buttocks [ breech], plus the lower extremities, actually takes up more space. The fundus, being the largest part of the uterus, probably accounts for the fact that in approximately 97% of all pregnancies, the fetus turns so that the buttocks and lower extremities are in the fundus. Vaginal delivery of a breech presentation requires great skill if the fetus is not to be damaged. With the low rate of vaginal breech deliveries in the developed world, experience is being lost. 6% of women with breech presentation still have a vaginal breech delivery as they present too late - so units need to retain a high level of preparedness. Types of breech presentation: I. Complete breech [ flexed breech]: The fetal attitude is one of complete flexion, with hips and knees both flexed and the feet tucked in beside the buttocks. The presenting part consists of two buttocks, external genitalia and two feet. It is commonly present in multiparae. II. Incomplete breech: This is due to varying degrees of extension of thighs or legs at podalic pole. Three varieties are possible; - Breech with extended legs [ frank breech ]: The breech presents with the hips flexed and legs extended on the abdomen. 70% of breech presentations are of this type and it is particularly common in primigravidae whose good uterine muscle tone inhibits flexion of the legs and free turning of the fetus. - Footling breech: This is rare. One or both feet present because neither hips nor knees are fully flexed. The feet are lower than the buttocks, which distinguishes it from the complete breech. - Knee presentation: This is very rare. Thighs are extended but the knees are flexed, bringing the knees down to present at the brim.

Iron deficiency anemia is a common type of anemia — a condition in which blood lacks adequate healthy red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen to the body's tissues. As the name implies, iron deficiency anemia is due to insufficient iron. Without enough iron, your body can't produce enough of a substance in red blood cells that enables them to carry oxygen (hemoglobin). As a result, iron deficiency anemia may leave you tired and short of breath. You can usually correct iron deficiency anemia with iron supplementation. Sometimes additional tests or treatments for iron deficiency anemia are necessary, especially if your doctor suspects that you're bleeding internally.

Bacterial abscess of the liver is relatively rare; however, it has been described since the time of Hippocrates (400 BCE), with the first published review by Bright appearing in 1936. In 1938, Ochsner's classic review heralded surgical drainage as the definitive therapy; however, despite the more aggressive approach to treatment, the mortality remained at 60-80%.[1] The development of new radiologic techniques, the improvement in microbiologic identification, and the advancement of drainage techniques, as well as improved supportive care, have reduced mortality to 5-30%; yet, the prevalence of liver abscess has remained relatively unchanged. Untreated, this infection remains uniformly fatal. The three major forms of liver abscess, classified by etiology, are as follows: Pyogenic abscess, which is most often polymicrobial, accounts for 80% of hepatic abscess cases in the United States Amebic abscess due to Entamoeba histolytica accounts for 10% of cases [2] Fungal abscess, most often due to Candida species, accounts for fewer than 10% of cases

Ventricular fibrillation is a heart rhythm problem that occurs when the heart beats with rapid, erratic electrical impulses. This causes pumping chambers in your heart (the ventricles) to quiver uselessly, instead of pumping blood. Sometimes triggered by a heart attack, ventricular fibrillation causes your blood pressure to plummet, cutting off blood supply to your vital organs. Ventricular fibrillation, an emergency that requires immediate medical attention, causes the person to collapse within seconds. It's the most frequent cause of sudden cardiac death. Emergency treatment includes cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and shocks to the heart with a device called a defibrillator. Treatments for those at risk of ventricular fibrillation include medications and implantable devices that can restore a normal heart rhythm.

Menstruation is a woman's monthly bleeding. When you menstruate, your body sheds the lining of the uterus (womb). Menstrual blood flows from the uterus through the small opening in the cervix and passes out of the body through the vagina. Most menstrual periods last from 3 to 5 days.

Male and female Foley catheter insertion into bladder. Using mannequins.

Urinary incontinence isn't a disease, it's a symptom. It can be caused by everyday habits, underlying medical conditions or physical problems. A thorough evaluation by your doctor can help determine what's behind your incontinence. Temporary urinary incontinence Certain drinks, foods and medications can act as diuretics — stimulating your bladder and increasing your volume of urine. They include: Alcohol Caffeine Decaffeinated tea and coffee Carbonated drinks Artificial sweeteners Corn syrup Foods that are high in spice, sugar or acid, especially citrus fruits Heart and blood pressure medications, sedatives, and muscle relaxants Large doses of vitamins B or C Urinary incontinence also may be caused by an easily treatable medical condition, such as: Urinary tract infection. Infections can irritate your bladder, causing you to have strong urges to urinate, and sometimes incontinence. Other signs and symptoms of urinary tract infection include a burning sensation when you urinate and foul-smelling urine. Constipation. The rectum is located near the bladder and shares many of the same nerves. Hard, compacted stool in your rectum causes these nerves to be overactive and increase urinary frequency. Persistent urinary incontinence Urinary incontinence can also be a persistent condition caused by underlying physical problems or changes, including: Pregnancy. Hormonal changes and the increased weight of the uterus can lead to stress incontinence. Childbirth. Vaginal delivery can weaken muscles needed for bladder control and also damage bladder nerves and supportive tissue, leading to a dropped (prolapsed) pelvic floor. With prolapse, the bladder, uterus, rectum or small intestine can get pushed down from the usual position and protrude into the vagina. Such protrusions can be associated with incontinence. Changes with age. Aging of the bladder muscle can decrease the bladder's capacity to store urine. Menopause. After menopause women produce less estrogen, a hormone that helps keep the lining of the bladder and urethra healthy. Deterioration of these tissues can aggravate incontinence. Hysterectomy. In women, the bladder and uterus are supported by many of the same muscles and ligaments. Any surgery that involves a woman's reproductive system, including removal of the uterus, may damage the supporting pelvic floor muscles, which can lead to incontinence. Enlarged prostate. Especially in older men, incontinence often stems from enlargement of the prostate gland, a condition known as benign prostatic hyperplasia. Prostate cancer. In men, stress incontinence or urge incontinence can be associated with untreated prostate cancer. But more often, incontinence is a side effect of treatments for prostate cancer. Obstruction. A tumor anywhere along your urinary tract can block the normal flow of urine, leading to overflow incontinence. Urinary stones — hard, stone-like masses that form in the bladder — sometimes cause urine leakage. Neurological disorders. Multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, stroke, a brain tumor or a spinal injury can interfere with nerve signals involved in bladder control, causing urinary incontinence.

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